Anticolonialism in the twentieth and twenty-first century refers to two interconnected concepts: a historical event and a critical analytic. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. Please let us discuss the brave roles of this groups and peoples. Azikiwe had less interest in purely Nigerian goals than did Davies, a student of Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, whose political orientation was considered left-wing. [11], By the 1880s, the National African Company became the dominant commercial power, increasing from 19 to 39 stations between 1882 and 1893. "The agents performed similar but more expansive roles as their Company counterparts. The seven men who governed Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria and Lagos through 1914 were Henry McCallum, William MacGregor, Walter Egerton, Ralph Moor, Percy Girouard, Hesketh Bell and Frederick Lugard. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. Over the next decades as colonial rule became institutionalized, African resistance to colonialism became more focused and intense. As a historical event, anticolonialism means the struggle against imperial rule in colonized countries, mostly during the first half of the twentieth century. In the south, by contrast, traditional rulers were employed as vehicles of indirect rule in Edoland and Yorubaland, but Christianity and Western education undermined their sacerdotal functions. European colonialists had managed to quell the efforts by Africans to resist the establishment of colonial rule with one exception. Pre-colonial southern Nigeria was an _____ societey. The Action Group was thus the heir of a generation of flourishing cultural consciousness among the Yoruba and also had valuable connections with commercial interests that were representative of the comparative economic advancement of the Western Region. The Deputy Governor served as political administrator for company territory and appointed three officials in Nigeria to carry out the work of administration. The Action Group consistently supported minority-group demands for autonomous states within a federal structure, as well as the severance of a midwest state from the Western Region. An example was that at Onitsha, where they could bargain directly with local suppliers and purchase products likely to turn a profit. Even before gaining its charter, the Company signed treaties with local leaders which granted it broad sovereign powers. To be sure, there were widespread resistances against colonial rule, which include the 'Abd al-Qadir led resistance against the French in Algeria, the Asante King (Prempeh I) led revolt against British colonialists in Ghana, the Maji Maji revolt in Tanganyika, the Ndebele rebellions in Rhodasia, the Ijebu Kingdom and the Opobo resistances in . After the 1930s, political activities focused primarily on ways to end British rule. Other European powers acknowledged Britain's dominance over the area in the 1885 Berlin Conference. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. To establish settled government in the newly won districts; To improve and extend native footpaths throughout the country; To construct properly graded roads in the more populated districts; To clear the numerous rivers in the country and make them suitable for launch and canoe traffic; and. Amalgamation of Nigeria was envisioned from early on in its governance, as is made clear by the report of the Niger Committee in 1898. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra. Because Western education and Christianity spread rapidly in the south and not in the north, development was much slower in the north, and the growing disparity between north and south later caused political tensions. [72], The Influenza pandemic made its way to the port of Lagos by September 1918 by way of a number of ships including the SS Panayiotis, the SS Ahanti, and the SS Bida. Palm oil was used locally for cooking, the kernels were a source for food, trees were tapped for palm wine, and the fronds were used for building material. Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. It was replaced by a new coalition government led by David Lloyd George featuring Conservatives and Lloyd George's supporters in the Liberal Party, while Asquith and the remainder of the Liberals entered opposition.[69]. By a British Act of Parliament, Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960. The British Culture in Nigeria. [77] Its revenue quickly increased, from 4,424 in 1901 to 274,989 in 1910. Modern nationalists in the south, whose thinking was shaped by European ideas, opposed indirect rule, as they believed that it had strengthened what they considered an anachronistic ruling class and shut out the emerging Westernised elite. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from 361,815 to 1,933,235 over the same period. Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. [63], The Protectorate was centrally administered by the Colonial Civil Service, staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staffmany of whom originated from outside the territory. In April 1927, the British colonial government in Nigeria took measures to enforce the Native Revenue (Amendment) Ordinance. In May of this year, Herbert J. Beecroft was the British representative to Fernando Po, where the African Slave Trade Patrol of the Royal Navy was stationed. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was Herbert Macauley, often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. Instead, acts of resistance were usually prompted by some new colonial policy - like taking away land, or forcing people to pay a tax, or forcing them to work for free on roads or railways. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the Oba of Benin, whose office was closely identified with Edo religion, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. His mission failed, but Park and his party covered more than 1,500 kilometres (930mi), passing through the western portions of the Sokoto Caliphate, before drowning when their boats overturned in rapids near Bussa. In the Northern Cameroons, however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. [22] Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. It was supported not only by the income from huge agricultural surpluses but also by a new range of direct and indirect taxes imposed during the 1950s. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican Bishop of the Niger. They caused major transformations in traditional society as they eroded the religious institutions such as human sacrifice, infanticide and secret societies, which had formerly played a role in political authority and community life.[26]. His objective was to conquer the entire region and to obtain recognition of the British protectorate by its indigenous rulers, especially the Fulani emirs of the Sokoto Caliphate. These changes included taking land from African people and giving it to the growing number of Europeans in the colonies. [36], The company, as was common among European businesses in Africa, paid its native workers in barter. 19, no. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government. The Colonial Office approved most of Lugard's plan, but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval. Main aim. In these territories, violent resistance brought colonial rule to a close. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. It made anti-slavery treaties with West African powers, which it enforced militarily with the blockade of Africa. After the Willink Commission examined and reported on this issue in 1958, independence was granted. He shows that, long before the growth of a mass independence movement in the wake of the second world war, there was considerable opposition to colonial rule. Revolts in against water rates and the alienation of indigenous land in 1908 and 1911 served to unite native African elites and working class residents. By 1938 the NYM was agitating for dominion status within the British Commonwealth of Nations so that Nigeria would have the same status as Canada and Australia. The British, when faced with dissent, tended to grant political reforms in an effort to dispel the attractiveness of more-radical . [31], In 1891, the consulate established the Niger Coast Protectorate Force or "Oil Rivers Irregulars".[32]. The Portuguese sold slaves as a way to "obtain spices and weapons in other areas" (Alme). British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Nigeria (/ n a d r i / ny-JEER-ee-), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa.It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean.It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi), and with a population of over 225 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the world's . His political platform called for economic and educational development, Africanization of the civil service, and self-government for Lagos. Initial British attempts to open trade with the interior by way of the Niger could not overcome climate and diseases such as malaria. . Lugard informed the leaders of conquered Sokoto: The Fulani in old times [] conquered this country. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.[12]. Portuguese Roman Catholic priests who accompanied traders and officials to the West African coast introduced Christianity to the Edo Empire in the fifteenth century. Namely, it possessed colonies on all continents. [67], The Colonial Office, where Lugard was still held in high regard, accepted that changes might be due in the south, but it forbade fundamental alteration of procedures in the north. Lagos was annexed as a Crown Colony in 1861 via the Lagos Treaty of Cession.[30]. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the Catholic missionaries waned. In: The Journal of African History: (1990 . In the Eastern Region, appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. Nigeria is a country in West Africa and was colonized by the British in 1884 during a slave trade (Alme). Nigeria's potential in the Post-Colonial Era. [17] In 1767, British traders facilitated a notorious massacre of hundreds of people at Calabar after inviting them onto their ships, ostensibly to settle a local dispute. The British accomplished the colonization by using its military. Laird's efforts were stimulated by the detailed reports of a pioneer German explorer, Heinrich Barth, who travelled through much of Borno and the Sokoto Caliphate, where he recorded information about the region's geography, economy and inhabitants. European traders in Nigeria initially made widespread use of the cowrie, which was already valued locally. All these things which I have said the Fulani by conquest took the right to do now pass to the British. Among the other major parties, the NCNC took fifty-six seats, winning a majority in both the Eastern and the Western regions, while the Action Group captured only twenty-seven seats. [13], The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. As a further step toward independence, the Governor's Executive Council was merged with the Council of Ministers in 1957 to form the all-Nigerian Federal Executive Council. Under Goldie's direction, the Royal Niger Company was instrumental in depriving France and Germany of access to the region. [59], Lugard advocated constantly for the unification of the whole territory, and in August 1911 the Colonial Office asked Lugard to lead the amalgamated colony.[60]. Sometimes forced labour was used directly for public works projects. Today, Lagos remains Nigeria's financial capital and, as home to an estimated eight million people, ranks . [73], Africa as a whole was hit by three waves of H1N1 influenza A, the first and second would be the most deadly for the colony of Nigeria. How did Algerias resistance to French control differ rom East africas resistance to German rule. The officers of the RWAFF were British. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. In some instances, however, a double allegianceto the idea of sacred monarchy for its symbolic value and to modern concepts of law and administrationwas maintained. Armed resistance decreased in the 1920s but protest continued, "characterised by civil rights and civil . In 1923 Herbert Macaulay, the grandson of Samuel Ajayi Crowther, established the first Nigerian political party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party, which successfully contested three Lagos seats in the Legislative Council. Although the Muslim emirs eventually collaborated with the British to establish such rule in Northern Nigeria, the absence of similar authority structures in the South led to more direct colonial rule. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. They received attention from major parties before elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. Vice consuls were assigned to ports that already had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. The . In 1929, this incident in Nigeria later became one of the reasons for the fight against colonial rule in Africa A) The Nigerian Oil crisis B) The Aba Women's Revolt C) . [57], Egerton also supervised improvements to the Lagos harbour and extension of the local telegraph network. Bello wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence. Balewa formed a coalition government that included the Action Group as well as the NCNC to prepare the country for the final British withdrawal. Ajay. [45], A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. The forces unleashed against the British were now diverse, including soldiers who had served in World War II, the media, restless youth, market women, educated people, and farmers, all of whom became committed to the anticolonial movement. It also makes imporatant new developments in the study of interwar history. They later discovered that the demand for . In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. [11], Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. Davies and Nnamdi Azikiwe. [18], In 1807, the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Slave Trade Act, prohibiting British subjects from participating in the Atlantic slave trade. They wanted self-government, charging that only colonial rule prevented the unshackling of progressive forces in Nigeria and other states. Goods were made available on credit to African middlemen, who were expected to trade them at a pre-arranged price and deliver the proceeds to the company. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. Gandhi. Years of colonial rule yieleded system w/ all-powerful central government surrounded by weak and economically insolvent states. Britain withdrew from the slave trade when it was the major transporter of slaves to the Americas. A third of the people associated with an 1842 riverine expedition died. He aroused political awareness through his newspaper, the Lagos Daily News. Some of the treaties contained prohibitions on diplomacy conducted without British permission, or other promises to abide by British rule. practice of indirect rule, Brown contends that culture industries like Nollywood can sustain capitalism . Economic links among the regions increased, but indirect rule tended to discourage political interchange. The Anglicans and other religious groups had a conscious "native church" policy to develop indigenous ecclesiastical institutions to become independent of Europeans. Nigerian recruits participated in the war effort as labourers and soldiers. [82], Oil exploration began in 1906 under John Simon Bergheim's Nigeria Bitumen Corporation, to which the Colonial Office granted exclusive rights. It was guerrilla warfare in the case of the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya (1952-60) and Zimbabwe's war of independence (1965-79); it was all . In this final section of this module, we will look at four phases of African reaction to . . I would encourage the society to resist by declaring a war against the Europeans. (This was also reflective of growing pan-Africanism among American activists of the time.) The greatest advantage of Nigeria were its huge natural . Frequently African armies of 20, 000 were defeated by European-led armies of 2,000 or less. Its program reflected greater planning and was more ideologically oriented than that of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons. The appointment of Joseph Chamberlain as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire. Nigeria Lugard and Indirect Rule. Retrieved October 11, 2014 from. [64], Each region also had a Native Administration, staffed by locals, and possessing a Native Treasury. The policy of indirect rule used in Northern Nigeria became a model for British colonies elsewhere in Africa. Although the capital was not moved, Lugard's bias in favour of the Muslim north was clear at the time. Exploration was intensified in 1946, but the first commercial discovery did not occur until 1956, at Olobiri in the Niger Delta. This is what happened in 1929 when Igbo and Ibibio market women in Owerri and Calabar (Nigeria) made war against warrant chiefs and colonial authorities over issues of taxation and colonial administration. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. As a latecomer in the struggle for colonies, Germany had to settle for four territories, called "protectorates," in . In practice, Lugard used the annual sessions to inform the traditional rulers of British policy, leaving them with no functions at the council's meetings except to listen and to assent. It was suspended in 1950 against a call for greater autonomy, which resulted in an inter-parliamentary conference at Ibadan in 1950. The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. Sir Richmond Palmer, acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation. In 1958 exportation of Nigerian oil was initiated at facilities constructed at Port Harcourt. They had obtained the assent of the emirs to form a political party to counterbalance the activities of the southern-based parties. In the face of threats to the divided Yoruba states from Dahomey and the Sokoto Caliphate, as represented by the emirate of Ilorin, the British Governorassisted by the CMSsucceeded in imposing peace settlements on the interior. The first missions were opened by the Church of England's Church Missionary Society (CMS). "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." Nigerians also requested more political representation. The British High Commissioners could depose emirs and other officials if necessary. [19], West Africa also bought British exports, supplying 3040% of the demand for British cotton during the Industrial Revolution of 17501790.[27]. Local administration, where the colonial citizens typically experienced colonial authority, was based on the policy of indirect rule first developed in the north. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. You are right my brother. Discover how the Mandinka Empire, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, and Nigeria resisted European colonists and the impact each conflict had. Du Bois. [53] The first five heads of the Nigeria Department (18981914) were Reginald Antrobus, William Mercer, William Baillie Hamilton, Sydney Olivier, and Charles Strachey. He argued that the division into two separate colonies was advisable unless a stronger central government could bind Nigeria into more than just an administrative convenience for the three regions. Inteno Fiberkonverter Blinkar, Herkules Flygplan Fakta, Kraftvrme Frdelar Och Nackdelar, Infllt Mtarskp Utomhus . Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria". This led to protests known as Women's War. British colonialism created Nigeria, but did little to make it a viable, stable, self-sustaining national entity. In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria from his six-year term as Governor of Hong Kong, to oversee the merger of the northern and southern protectorates. Algeria fought back and eventually was granted self rule and nigeria was put down and never got independance. Local rulers continued to administer their territories, but consular authorities assumed jurisdiction for the equity courts established earlier by the foreign mercantile communities. Colonial Lagos was a busy, cosmopolitan port. colonizers and passive resistance by refusing to collaborate with the colonizers e .g. The emirs retained their caliphate titles but were responsible to British district officers, who had final authority. [19] Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. The colony was created through the consolidation of the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate. The delta masked the mouth of the great river, and for centuries Nigerians chose not to tell Europeans the secrets of the interior. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. In some cases, British assignment of people to ethnic groups, and treatment based along ethnic lines, led to identification with ethnicity where none had existed before.[84]. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive. [12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. . These organisations were primarily urban phenomena that arose after numerous rural migrants moved to the cities. Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; France sold Louisiana to the United States, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Military history of Nigeria during World War II, National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons, discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits, "The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954", "Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British", A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767, The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies, "Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 19181919 Influenza in Lagos", "The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic", "African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic", "The influenza pandemic of 191819 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages", Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 18511914, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&oldid=1136412842. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in December 1959; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. [79][80], Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF). These were the Agent-General, the Senior Judicial Officer, and the Commandant of the Constabulary. In the north, the emirs intended to maintain firm control on economic and political change. Introduction. The protest began in the Nigeria did not come into being until 1914, when the consort of a colonial Governor-General, Flora Shaw and her man, the fascist Lord Lugard willed and named Nigeria into being, with the dubious . In 1944 Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe, an Igbo who had been educated in the United States, united more than 40 different groups to establish the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). Britain also annexed Freetown in Sierra Leone, declaring it a Crown Colony in 1808.[20]. They never were able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. 57-100 discuss issues of resistance and collaboration. September 24, 2021 at 9:40pm by jones.7592. British influence in the Niger area increased gradually over the . The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. . Harding, director of Nigerian affairs at the Colonial Office, defined the official position of the British Government in support of indirect rule when he said that "direct government by impartial and honest men of alien race [] never yet satisfied a nation long and [] under such a form of government, as wealth and education increase, so do political discontent and sedition". A.J. This scheme proved unpopular and confusing to many involved parties and was phased out. Alan Lennox-Boyd, M.P., the British Secretary of State for the Colonies. In the 1920s, Nigerians began to form a variety of associations, such as professional and business associations, like the Nigerian Union of Teachers; the Nigerian Law Association, which brought together lawyers, many of whom had been educated in Britain; and the Nigerian Produce Traders' Association, led by Obafemi Awolowo. Who accompanied traders and officials to the Edo Empire in the north, disagreed with clifford and the. In these territories, but balked at authorising him to pass laws without their approval from revenues within! Moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties a of... Had concluded treaties of cooperation with the Foreign Office for centuries Nigerians chose to. 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